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Building Expertise Through the Application of Cognitive Theory in Instructional Media

By

Gail Ruby

Cognitive Theory in Instructional Media

Expertise according to Clark (2003) is gained through practice or training and is also ‘domain specific’ knowledge in a specialized field. In introductory physics courses the students get their first introduction to Newton’s Laws of Motion with definitions and equations. The physics instructor, with extensive instruction and many years of experience teaching Newton’s Laws, can recite, explain, provide examples and solve problems pertaining to Newton’s Laws with ease while the student struggles. This difference is a result of the expertise that the instructor has in physics and the lack of expertise possessed by the student. Clark (2003) explains that a trainer or instructional designer can “accelerate expertise through appropriate practice during training” (p. 3). One can build expertise with years of experience but if the desire is to build expertise in shorter period of time, this can be accomplished through instruction.

Does the instructional delivery medium affect the instruction process? Clark (2003) refers to a 1947 media comparison study conducted by Hall and Cushing for the United States Army. In this study the same lesson was presented to three different groups using three different delivery methods. The delivery methods included a film, a classroom instructor and a self-study workbook (Hall and Cushing, 1947 referenced by Clark, 2003). The results of post training tests indicated that there was “no difference in learning among the three groups” (Clark, 2003, p. 15). Humans are capable of transferring various types of sensory information into knowledge. Cognitive theory describes the mechanisms within memory that transform sensory inputs into knowledge.

These mechanisms and their application to instruction created using authoring software will be examined in this presentation.

Learning and Memory

Learning as described by Clark (2003) is “the active transformation of content from the environment into new knowledge and skills in memory” (p. 21). There are three types of memory involved in learning: (a) sensory memory is collected by the senses such as auditory or visual but is stored for only short periods of time; (b) working or short-tem memory which stores the sensory inputs for a short period of time; it is limited in capacity and also used for the processing of information; and (c) long-term memory with a large storage capacity but no processing ability (Clark, 2003). These three types of memory work together to collect, process and store information that can be used to build new knowledge and skills. Significant for instructional designers are the interactions between working memory and long term memory in the acquisition of new knowledge and skills.

To learn and thus build expertise, the learner must interact with new information, processing it with previous knowledge, to create new knowledge. Instructional materials are typically the suppliers of many interactions with new information which can occur in the form of books, tapes, CDs, films, videotapes, DVDs, computer programs, websites, as well as manipulatives such as physical objects or abstractions such as ideas. With regard to computer based content, Sims (2002) states, “interactivity is not simply a function of computer-based transactions, but a fundamental success factor for teaching and learning, especially when implemented in an online context” (p. 143). Interactions take different forms and the fundamental online interactions were first described by Moore (1989) as learner-learner, learner-instructor, and learner-content. Learner to learner and learner to instructor instructions involve the exchange of ideas, resources and information (Moore, 1989). Accessing and creating meaning out of Web-enabled content describes the learner content interaction (Sims, et. al., 2002). Sims, et. al., (2002) adds another interaction between the learner and the interface described as accessing and navigating the learning environment. The learner-content interaction according to Vrasidas (2000) “is the fundamental form of interaction on which all education is based” (p. 341). Whatever type of instructional content is employed the various types of memory work together to process it into new knowledge and skills which promote the development of expertise.

Managing Cognitive Load

This integration process of recalled and new knowledge that leads to new learning takes place in the working memory. Working memory then plays an important role in the process of learning but it has a limited capacity. In 1956 George Mills (as cited by Clark, 2003) described working memory capacity as ‘seven plus or minus two chunks’ of information. Chunk size varies with individuals such as between novices and experts. According to Clark

(2003) experts “are to use their limited (working memory) capacity to greater advantage because they can bring larger chunks of information into it” (p. 39) because they have a large amount of specific information that is well-organized. For instructional designers this means that content that exceeds the “seven plus or minus two chunks’ rule will overload the working memory capacity of the learner.

An instructional designer should then utilize methods that optimize the use of the limited capacity of working memory. Clark (2003) summaries these methods as follows: (a) worked examples to offset the load on the working memory that result from practice, (b) provide content information in both auditory and visual formats to maximize the use of the separate areas in working memory for auditory and visual storage, and (c) minimize the presentation of new information in one session by “chunking, white space, lean text, sequencing of content, and culling of nice-to-know but nonessential lesson information” (p. 51). In addition, Mayer (as cited by Whelan, 200) describes learners as selecting, organizing, and processing information from separate verbal and visual stimuli. This processing of information is enhanced when both verbal and visual instruction are utilized (Whelan, 2002). Being informed of the importance of working memory in the processing of new knowledge, the ability to overload working memory and ways to optimize the use of working memory in instruction can help the instructional designer develop expertise in learners more quickly.

Managing Attention

Strategies for managing cognitive load will be unsuccessful unless combined with principles that keep the learner’s attention focused on the instruction. The ability of the working memory to processes information from the senses with prior knowledge in long-term memory requires that the learner’s attention be focused on the task being performed (Clark, 2003).

Instructional designers can manage attention by optimizing attention capacity and directing attention to significant instructional content which includes minimizing divided attention and centering limited cognitive resources on learning (Clark, 2003, p. 66). The capabilities in instructional authoring software tools allow the designer to control many of these variables. Table 1 (Clark, 2003) Methods of Managing Attention provides a guide to assist instructional designers in the preparation of instruction that manages the learner’s attention.

Table 1 (Clark, 2003)

Methods of Managing Attention

Optimizing Attention Capacity
	Achieved By	Variables
	ensuring that the physical elements of the environment are conducive to learning	Temperature
		Light
		Ventilation
		Food
	managing fatigue	reduce the length of intense learning periods
		use variety in the instructional presentation
		allow time for breaks
	promoting accountability and engagement	require learners to complete assignments to specific standard during instruction
		ask individual learners direct questions
		make contacts with participants (eye contact when in a face-to-face environment)
		ensure that all learners are participating in collaborative work
		keep the pace of instruction active
Directing Attention to Significant Instructional Content
	Achieved By	Variables
	support of selective attention	asking questions
		presenting learning objective at the beginning of instruction
		emphasize important information in the instructional presentation with highlighted text and attention grabbers
	minimizing divided attention	integrating visuals and text on pages and screens
	minimizing divided attention	minimize distraction during learning by offering no other activates to learners except the primary instructional activity

Outside of face-to-face environments, physical variables are not controllable however, the designer can incorporate an environment checklist in the course materials that would enable the leaner to set up a physical environment with minimal distractions.

Activation of Prior Knowledge

Activation of prior knowledge is a step in the learning process that Clark (2003) describes as “the integration of new content into existing schema (memories) already in long-term memory” (p. 26). This means that instruction should evoke the recall of prior, related knowledge from long-term memory bringing it into the working memory. The learning process continues in working memory where the pervious, recalled knowledge is incorporated with the new knowledge in the rehearsal for encoding into long-term memory. Rehearsal according to Clark (2003) is the “ processing of new content in ways that lead to its integration with prior knowledge activated from long-term memory” (p. 26). Learning can then be described as a dynamic modification of memory (Campbell, 1998). Rehearsals are a means of combining old and new knowledge in such a way that it can be encoded or stored in long-term memory. “The more frequently information is encoded, the more likely it is learned” (p. 26); that is, memory is changed by using it (Campbell, 1998).

Instructional Strategies for Activation of Prior Knowledge

Instructional strategies for activation of prior knowledge differ depending on the likelihood that prior knowledge exits. For learner’s likely to have prior knowledge, the following techniques can be used before presenting any new content (Clark, 2003): “group discussions of problems related to the content of the lesson; asking and answering pre-questions prior to the lesson; or presentation of comparative advance organizer” (p, 84-85). Group discussions and problem inquiries make use of collaborative learning and improves the learner’s understanding (Smith and Moust, as cited by Clark, 2003). “An advance organizer is information delivered in words or pictures prior to the lesson content that either activates relevant prior knowledge or provides prior knowledge that the learner can use to integrate the new information included in the lesson” (Clark, 2003, p 87).

For learner’s likely to have prior knowledge, “group discussions of problems related to the content of the lesson; asking and answering pre-questions prior to the lesson; or presentation of comparative advance organizer” (Clark, 2003. p. 84-85) used before the lesson are techniques for prior knowledge retrieval. Group discussions and pre-questions can be accomplished online but these would not be well-suited to the attributes of a program such as Flash. Rather using the abilities of Flash for integration of text and graphics into comparative advance organizers would provide an effective means of knowledge retrieval. An advance organizer as described by Clark (2003) “is information delivered in words or pictures prior to the lesson content that either activates relevant prior knowledge or provides prior knowledge that the learner can use to integrate the new information included in the lesson” (p 87). The integration of text and graphics with animation is an excellent vehicle for gaining and focusing attention on the relevant information.

For learner unlikely to have prior knowledge of the content of the lesson, Clark (2003) suggests assigning a pre-lesson case study or including ‘expository advance organizers’ (p. 93). Again the pre-lesson case study would not be effectively presented using Flash but the expository advance organizers would grab the attention of the learner as well as activation of the long-term memory. Clark (2003) distinguishes the advance organizers as comparative when there is prior knowledge to activate and as expository when used to provide new knowledge. If the animations are designed in such a way as to be memorable, then their purpose as an expository advance organizer would be accomplished. Subject matter knowledge and experience using Flash would provide the instructional designer with the ability to effectively create both types of advance organizers.

Application of Technology to Activation of Prior Knowledge

An example of using technology to activate prior knowledge is the Multimedia Forum Kiosk (His, 1997) described as “an environment that served as generator of thoughts, explanations and elaborations; a vehicle for discussion, argumentation, and reflection; and ultimately, a repository for distributed expertise, group ownership and shared ideas” (p. 27). The learning of four elementary students was examined in the areas of heat energy, heat capacity, heat, and temperature. The results indicated that knowledge integration occurred as the students expanded their ability to distinguish between models and increased their ability to link ideas (His, 1997).

Instructional media can be used to present pre-lesson problems for group discussion as illustrated with multimedia kiosk (His, 1997) as well as produce advance organizers that contain both text and graphics. “Learners within traditional environments may be able peruse their course text for advance organizers, but Macromedia Dreamweaver and Macromedia Flash multimedia can include dimensions such as video and audio as well as the issue of engaged learning brought upon by the need to physically operate the multimedia” (Karadimos, 2004, p.3).

Another important consideration in the knowledge retrieval process is to ensure that irrelevant prior knowledge is not activated (Clark, 2003). This can occur when “seductive details” (Garber, et.al., as cited by Clark, 2003, p. 93), are used prior to the lesson. Seductive text or graphics include items added to the lesson to elicit emotional interest. When using a Macromedia Flash presentation, the designer has the ability to control the content. Seductive details as well as nice-to-know but unconnected information can be eliminated and only pertinent information included. Therefore, the capabilities and attributes of Macromedia Flash make it an excellent presenter of advance organizers for pre-lesson activation of prior knowledge.

Implicit and Explicit Mental Models

Visual objects are represented in the mind as a guide to assist everyday living and the acquisition of knowledge. The functions that these representations perform include “automatic, unconscious computations required to anticipate the continuing structure of objects that are obscured from view, and conscious knowledge of an object's identity, which involves recognition of the object's meaning, function, and characteristics” (Cooper, 1996, p. 1). Explicit memory is included in the category of conscious, intentional recollection of knowledge and experiences (Cooper, 1996). Implicit memory refers to the unconscious, unintentional retrieval of knowledge and information. Remembering is an explicit memory function that is required for test and examinations. By contrast, implicit memory “must be inferred from priming effects, or facilitation of performance on tasks that do not require conscious recollection of experiences” (Cooper, 1996, p. 1). This distinction between types of memory will effect the learning process whereby knowledge is encoded in long term memory.

Implicit and Explicit Memory Encoding

Instructional methods differ for the encoding of information in explicit and implicit memory. Explicit memory encoding requires rehearsal for recall and recognition but a more elaborate rehearsal such as augmentation or collaborative learning for complex concepts (Clark, 2003). Implicit recall or recognition is encoded using mnemonics and representative graphics while complex concepts require organizational, transformation, interpretive graphics, analogies and examples (Clark, 2003). An instructional lesson that provides illustrations or graphics in combination with text will promote implicit memory encoding (Clark, 2003). Utilizing examples is also an implicit encoding method for complex concepts, especially if the example has embedded questions that require the learner to study the example or practice a self-explanatory example (Clark, 2003). An analogy, comparison or similarity can also be used because it serves as a map linking prior knowledge with new information as well as content that teaches processes like ‘cause and effect’ (Clark, 2003). An explicit instructional lesson might include detailed notes of the classroom instruction, collaborative learning, asking questions, training learners to self-question, practice assignments, and requiring learners to explain problem solving steps (Clark, 2003).

Instructional Authoring Software Capabilities for Memory Encoding

Development of new instructional content, updating of existing content, and deployment of courses can be accomplished easily in a variety of output formats using ToolBook (Sum Total, Inc., 2005). ToolBook is instructional authoring software that is offered at two different levels of functionality as ToolBook Assistant and ToolBook Instructor. ToolBook Assistant is designed for subject matter experts and business line managers for the rapid authoring of instruction (Sum Total, Inc., 2005). The capabilities of ToolBook Assistant include assessments, multiple deployment options, learning standards support and integration with ToolBook Instructor (Sum Total, Inc., 2005). ToolBook Instructor is designed for content developers, instructional designers, and subject matter experts with technological know-how desiring to create simulations, assessments, and interactive content (Sum Total, Inc., 2005). Additional capabilities of ToolBook Instructor include software application simulations, interactive content, multiple assessments, versatile deployment options and customization capabilities (Sum Total, Inc., 2005).

Even though ToolBook Assistant can produce text and graphics for implicit memory encoding as well as practice exercises for explicit memory encoding, ToolBook Instructor has more capabilities. The interactivity of ToolBook Instructor can produce content that promotes the encoding of explicit memory by asking questions of the learner, training learners to self-question or requiring learners to explain problem solving steps (Clark, 2003). The ability of ToolBook Instructor to produce application simulations can be utilized as an implicit encoding method by creating examples for the learner to study as well as creating content that teaches processes like how things work or ‘cause and effect’ (Clark, 2003).

Designer’s Edge is used to create instruction within a centralized system which can be standardized across an organization; multiple training developers can be online at the same time, sharing ideas, content, templates, and data (Computer Link, 1999). Designer's Edge provides online training design and planning tool that incorporates the ability to do task analysis and report customization, as well as to increase user productivity by encouraging the creation of reusable elements through combined interfaces (Computer Link, 1999). The designer can plan, design, analyze and evaluate all the phases in the instructional development process using Designer’s Edge combined with Net Synergy for the export of Designer's Edge storyboards directly to the Web and Designer's Edge Enterprise, a Designer's Edge Dreamweaver Extension for integration with Macromedia Dreamweaver (Allen Communications, n.d.). Net Synergy is used to export the Designer’s Edge storyboards to HTML or Java templates for cross-platform delivery on the Web (Computer Link, 1999). Designer's Edge Enterprise provides the capability to deliver online training that support the exchange of training data (Computer Link, 1999). ToolBook Instructor, ToolBook Assistant, Designer’s Edge and Manger’s Edge are compared in Appendix A Software Comparison.

Designer’s Edge can quickly generate an instructional lesson that combines illustrations or graphics in with text, such as an analogy, comparison or similarity for the promotion of implicit memory encoding (Clark, 2003). An explicit memory encoding instructional lesson of practice assignments could also be produced with Designer’s Edge (Clark, 2003).

Manager's Edge “helps trainers organize and deliver online learning activities and collect critical performance data-all in one easy-to-use, visual environment” (Computer Link, 1999, p. Manger’s Edge). Manager’s Edge is a centralization and course management tracking tool for the delivery and tracking of online learning from CD-ROM, LAN, WAN, corporate intranet, or from an Internet server (Computer Link, 1999). Learners have access to course activities and online content while administrators can manage and collect data for both online learning and traditional training (Computer Link, 1999). Manager's Edge is also AICC compliant therefore it supports the AICC standards for interoperability and can track performance on any course creating with AICC-compliant authoring tool such as Quest, Authorware, ToolBook and IconAuthor (Professional Learning Systems, 1997-04).

Course management software such as Manager’s Edge can be used to distribute instructional examples or self-explanatory practice exercises that promote implicit memory encoding (Clark, 2003). The ability of Manager’s Edge to deliver detailed notes before or after instruction can be utilized as an instructional method for explicit memory encoding (Clark, 2003).

Knowledge Transfer

Transfer, as described by Clark (2003), is the “bridge from training to performance” (p. 136). The goal of instruction or training is for learning to be transferred into new or improved job skills (Clark, 2003). Demonstration of learning is different from demonstrating job skills in that successful learning is measured using examinations and successful transfer of learning must be verified by enhanced job performance.

Near, Moderate, and Far Transfer Tasks

There are also differences between the types of tasks completed on the job; near transfer tasks are completed in a similar manner every time while far transfer task require methods to change every time. Filling out standardized forms or assembly line jobs require following set procedures and guidelines are examples of near transfer teaks (Clark, 2003). Job success is measured by consistency and efficiency therefore the training approach needs to emulate the workplace environment using external support, drill, and practice. An instructional media interface can be created using authoring software that is exactly the same as the workplace. Within this environment the trainee can perform drills and practice procedures that are required on the job. This type of system can also provide support or scaffolding in the form of hints such as arrows that point out the screen location of the next step in the process.

If the job “requires the learners not only to perform near-transfer teaks but also to adjust the steps to different situations” (Clark, 2003, p. 150), this is identified as a moderate transfer task. In instruction for moderate transfer, the learner must acquire an understanding beyond procedural steps. This can be accomplished by moving from specific to general steps and teaching how-it-works (Clark, 2003). Technology is capable of simulating real world environments electronically and “empirical evidence suggests that the use of simulations significantly enhances knowledge transfer in students over traditional class room delivery methods” (Bill, 1999, p. 7). Instructional authoring software such as ToolBook Instructor has the capability of creating software simulations as well as highly interactive content and behaviors (Sum Total, Inc., 2005).

Instruction for far transfer tasks requires multiple approaches aimed at developing problem solving and judgment skills. Mental models are required for the application of new knowledge and skills to diverse situation (Clark, 2003). Methods that have been developed to expedite far transfer includes (Clark, 2003, p. 153): (a) varied context examples and practice, (b) cause and effect mental models and teaching how it works, (c) inductive versus deductive instructional methods. (d) simulations in guided discovery lessons, and (e) cognitive aids to support meaningful learning such as emphasizing important ideas.

Application of Authoring Software to Transfer Tasks

For near transfer task, authoring software must have the ability to create an interface that is exactly the same as the workplace. Support or scaffolding must also be available within this environment as the trainee performs drill and practice procedures that are required on the job. Macromedia Authorware 7 and Qarbon ViewletBuilder 4, elearning authoring tools provide features with this capability (Macromedia, Inc., 1995-2005 and Qarbon, Inc., 2005).

In instruction for moderate transfer, the learner must acquire an understanding beyond specific procedural steps to general steps typically taught using how-it-works illustrations (Clark, 2003). Simulating real world environments electronically is an effective way of accomplishing moderate transfer. These features are available in both the Macromedia Authorware 7 and Qarbon ViewletBuilder 4 authoring software (Macromedia, Inc., 1995-2005 and Qarbon, Inc., 2005).

Far transfer tasks require instruction with multiple approaches aimed at developing problem solving and judgment skills through mental models (Clark, 2003). The authoring software for far transfer tasks must have features such as: high levels of interactivity, real world simulations, adaptive learning paths, behavior-based feedback, and assessment of learner comprehension levels. Macromedia Authorware 7 indicates that all of these instructional methods are available (Macromedia, Inc., 1995-2005) and Qarbon ViewletBuilder 4 (Qarbon, Inc., 2005) indicates that many of these are provided.

The features of ToolBook Assistant and ToolBook Instructor allow for the delivery of effective learning through: high levels of interactivity, real world simulations, adaptive learning paths, behavior-based feedback, and assessment of learner comprehension levels (Sum Total, Inc., 2005). This type of authoring software is also has the capability of providing instructional media with the multiple approaches required for far transfer tasks.

Real World Learning

The instructional strategy of problem-based learning (PBL) actively engages learners in the resolution of a complex real-world problem (Glazer, 2001). PBL can be used as the introductory phase of a lesson, module or course (Clark, 2003), and is often approached as a collaborative effort (Glazer, 2001).

Many instructional models recognize PBL as the most effective learning environment due to the learner’s involvement in the learning process through activation of prior knowledge, demonstration of skills, application of skills, and integration of these skills into real-world situations (Merrill, 2002). According to Merrill (2002), these activities are the basis for effective instruction because (a) “learning is promoted when learners are engaged in solving real-world problems, (b) learning is promoted when existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge, (c) learning is promoted when new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner, (d) learning is promoted when new knowledge is applied by the learner, and (e) learning is promoted when new knowledge is integrated into the learner’s world” (p. 44-45).

Students are challenged by real-world situations, engaged to utilize higher order thinking skills, and motivated by an opportunity to investigate and solve realistic problems (Glazer, 2001). The specific nature of a problem promotes knowledge transfer as well as providing a means to integrate knowledge with practice (Clark, 203).

Designing effective PBL activities requires the generation of problems that address concepts and principles relevant to the topics being studied (Glazer, 2001). The leaner-centered nature of PBL means that learners can take ownership of the problem by creating or selecting it (Glazer, 2001). Instructors must act as facilitators or coaches allowing the learners to develop their own hypotheses of how to solve the problem (Glazer, 2001). Learners must be provided with assessment criteria as well as additional resources that might aid in the inquiry (Glazer, 2001).

Maricopa Community College (2003) has applied PBL in various online contexts, including mathematics. One such problem is stated as (Maricopa Community College (2003) "You are interested in purchasing a new vehicle. What should your annual salary be to afford the car you want?” (para. 1). Resources are provided and the performance assessment criteria includes team involvement and a mathematical justification supported by relevant information.

Simulated real-world environments created using authoring software can be utilized as the backdrop for PBL scenarios. Online access to the problem statement, assessment criteria, instructor, and resources is a means of supplying readily available references for the collaborative team. Collaboration tools provided by learning management systems provide the communication catalyst that allows team members to exchange ideas, information, resources, and ultimately solve the problem. Collaborative tools NetMeeting and WebEx are evaluated in Appendix B Software Evaluation.

Metacognitive Activities

Metacognition is described by Clark (2003) as the “supervisory function of cognition” (p. 182) where the learner defines goals, strategies and monitors progress. Learners with high metacognitive skills are aware of the learning process directing their study tactics and checking their understanding (Clark, 2003). Instructional designers need to construct an instructional plan that accommodates their learner’s metacognitive abilities (Clark, 2003).

The application of metacognitive skill is demonstrated when the learner sets specific goals and achievement timelines, allots study time and effectively manages that time, identifies the appropriate learning tactic to achieve goals, and has comprehension awareness during the learning process (Clark, 2003). The self-directed learner will also be able to make adjustments to these tactics based on self-monitoring, evaluation, and external feedback (Clark, 2003). These tactics include focusing attention, rehearsal of instructional content to promote long-term memory encoding, and diagnosing areas of misunderstanding (Clark, 2003).

Instructional methods that support self-directed learning are identified by Clark (2003) as: (a) “use self-regulated learning skills inventories to assess learners’ metacognitive strengths and weaknesses, (b) provide support structures in learning environments such as elearning that relies on self-regulating skills, and (c) design training, especially online training, to accommodate the metacognitive skills of the learners” (P. 186). The degree of learner control, the extent to which learners are allowed to make instructional decisions, as well as the instructional architecture will direct the design decisions as consideration is given to the learner’s metacognitive abilities.

Receptive architectures will provide learners with high metacognitive skills the capability to set instructional goals, focus attention, organize instructional content, rehearse new content for long-term memory encoding, and make progress by regularly checking understanding (Clark, 2003). Directive architecture should be utilized to support learner’s lacking metacognitive skills because of the embedded self-regulation provided by lessons with learning objectives, chunking and signaling of content, frequent practice with feedback, and assessments that analyze learning progress (Clark, 2003). The architecture of guided discovery requires the building of a metacognitive job model which provides the trainee opportunities to become aware of their metacognitive processes applicable to their job (Clark, 2003). Learner with pre-existing self-regulatory learning skills will work best with an exploratory architecture where a high level of control is provided to the learner in order to set goals, select the best resource to achieve those goals, and observe progress.

Metacognition and Instructional Media

The learner’s metacognitive abilities can be supported by the development of self-regulatory instruction using authoring software, such as ToolBook or Designer’s Edge, and course management systems, such as WebCT and Blackboard. This can be accomplished by “a thorough analysis of the role of the instructional media and supporting tools in achieving the learning goals, an understanding of the impact of the use of technology, and careful consideration of the characteristics of the distance learner should drive the media selection and application process” (Principles for the design and development of distance education, n.d., para. 4).

Instruction that utilizes computer technology has the capability of supporting self-regulatory learning by collecting data via learner interactions (Kerlin, 1999). The system can then independently monitor learner progress and provide immediate feedback which supports the learner’s metacognitive skills by making available a greater degree of control, the opportunity to check understanding, and the means to adjust their learning strategy (Kerlin, 1999). Assessment strategies need to be an integral part of the online learning experience enabling learners to monitor progress, review and adjust study tactics, check comprehension, and immediately reestablish learning goals (Bell and Davis, 1996).

Metacognition can be supported by instructional media with attributes that provide learners with frequent and varied methods of progress assessment. The instructional media should also have the capability of self-assessment creation for guided support as learners evaluate their progress (Principles for the design and development of distance education, n.d., para. 3). Macromedia Authorware 7 provides instructional designers the ability to monitor and track student progress as well as provide immediate feedback (Macromedia, Inc., 1995-2005).

WebCT support learner self-assessment by automatically tracking what files each learner has accessed and can automatically create self-tests based on course content (Ohio State University, 2005). Blackboard also provides self-tests but supports fewer types of questions than WebCT (Ohio State University, 2005). Blackboard’s ‘Check Your Grade’ feature allows students to view their course grades (Ohio State University, 2005). WebCT’s ‘My Progress’ can be released to student as a means of tracking progress and can include student -centered information such as first access date, most recent access date, histogram showing detailed access ratios to all parts for course, conferencing tool readings and contributions. Content-centered data such as number of accesses to each page of content, average time spent on each page of content are also available with WebCT (Ohio State University, 2005). Blackboard’s learner progress tracking capability provides quantitative or qualitative data utilizing either numeric grades or text comments (Ohio State University, 2005). Blackboard allows learners to view results of quizzes, tests, and surveys (Ohio State University, 2005).

Metacognitive scaffolding provided to learners in the form of prompts also influences the development of understanding (Bell and Davis, 1996). According to Bell and Davis (1996) activity prompts provide students with the opportunity to justify their decisions and are designed to help students identify appropriate considerations as they work on individual activities. Self-monitoring prompts or planning and reflection prompts are designed to identify learner strengths and weaknesses and help learners map out strategies for an activity and reflect back on that activity (Bell and Davis, 1996).

Instructional media provides many tools that support learner’s metacognitive skill and their ability to achieve learning goals. By investigating the attributes of instructional media tools and careful consideration of the characteristics of the learner, the appropriate media tool can be selected and applied in the instructional design process. The resulting instruction should provide learners with the opportunity to regulate their learning by defining goals, developing strategies, monitoring progress and checking understanding.

Learner Motivation

Cark (2003) defines motivation as “anything that prompts learners to start an instructional program, to use effective learning strategies, and to persist in the face of difficulty” (P. 196). Various level of motivation can exit among learners however, a lack of motivation has a significant impact on instruction (Clark, 2003). Cognitive theory approaches motivation by considering the person’s feelings and thoughts rather than using a behavioral system based on rewards (Clark, 2003). Some popular cognitive models include attribution, interest, self-confidence, goals, and expectancy (Clark, 203).

In order to improve a learner’s motivation using attribution, focus attention to internal controllable causes and avoid excessive help so that learning success will be attributed to internal, controllable, stable effort and ability (Clark, 2003). Making content personally relevant will focus the learner’s attention and avoidance of seductive details (Harp and Mayer as cited by Clark, 2003) will minimize detractors from the content. Improved learning occurs when clear, concise and personal content is presented with learning objectives, preview sentences and seductive details at the end of the lesson (Clark, 2003).

Provide learner’s with achievable goals because self-confidence is built upon success (Clark, 2003). Learner’s with mastery goals focus on the learning outcomes while those with performance goals will focus on doing better than their classmates. The learner needs to think that learning goals are achievable in order to attempt them and the low-confidence learner requires mastery goals (Clark, 2003).

Expectancy combines learner self-confidence with the perceived value of the lesson (Clark, 2003). The amount of effort a learner will put into achieving a learning goal is based on the expectancy times value model, an integration of all the above described factors (Clark, 2003).

Song and Keller (as cited by Clark, 2003) studied motivationally adaptive computer assisted instruction and found that these lessons provided better learning results than motivationally saturated and motivationally minimized lessons. These results indicate that the right amount of motivation will provide the best instructional result.

Since motivation is the factor that prompts a learner to start an instructional activity, to apply a learning strategy, and to persist though completion, it most be addressed first in the process of designing effective instruction. The best possible instruction can be available to the most intelligent person however, if that person is not willing to start the learning process, apply their intelligence, or preset until the end, the intelligence goes unutilized and the instructional program gathers dust.

Conclusion

Cognitive theory views learning as the process of acquiring, retaining, and retrieving information which results from learners constructing and building upon prior knowledge (Clark, 2003). Training based upon cognitive theory is organized in manageable chunks, and builds upon learner generated memory devises (Munro and Rice-Munro, 2004). Instruction should supply the conceptual framework and the learner controls the building of connections (Munro and Rice-Munro, 2004). As a means of ensuring the aspects of cognitive theory are present in instruction, the elements presented in this discussion have been collected and categorized in a convenient tabular form presented as Appendix C Instructional Design Checklist.

Basing instruction on cognitive theory requires offering multiple learning pathways, which means “if a topic is important for students to learn, present it in a variety of ways that will stimulate learning - no matter the outcome that is desired or the students’ learning styles (Munro and Rice-Munro, 2004, p.29). Instructional authoring software utilized for the development of cognitive based instruction, must allow designers the ability to make content available using a variety of approaches in order for the training or instruction to reach all learners.

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Appendix A

Software Comparison

ToolBook Assistant and ToolBook Instructor by Sum Total, Inc.

ToolBook is instructional authoring software that is offered at two different levels of functionality as ToolBook Assistant and ToolBook Instructor. “ToolBook Assistant is designed for subject matter experts and business line managers in need of quickly creating standards-based elearning content” (Sum Total, Inc., 2005, p. 1). ToolBook Instructor is designed for content developers, instructional designers, and subject matter experts with technological know-how desiring to create simulations, assessments, and interactive content (Sum Total, Inc., 2005).

Development of new content, updating of existing content, and deployment of courses can be accomplished easily in a variety of output formats using ToolBook (Sum Total, Inc., 2005). “ToolBook supports SCORM (Sharable Content Object Reference Model) and AICC (Aviation Industry CBT Committee), the industry’s leading learning standards, providing seamless integration with the TotalLMS, Aspen Learning Management System, Docent Learning Management System and other standards based learning management systems” (Sum Total, Inc., 2005, p. 1). The features of ToolBook Assistant and ToolBook Instructor allow for the delivery of effective learning though high levels of interactivity, real world simulations, adaptive learning paths, behavior-based feedback, and assessment of learner comprehension levels (Sum Total, Inc., 2005).

Major capabilities available with ToolBook Instructor that are not available in ToolBook Assistant include (Sum Total, Inc., 2005):

Creation and recording of software simulations

Authoring of highly interactive content and behaviors

The Action Event system to support server side databases , HTTP, and JavaScript.

Application extensibility used to create custom tools and objects for extending the authoring interface of either ToolBook Instructor or ToolBook Assistant.

Authoring Flexibility

A tools palette for creating draw objects
Faster authoring via command window usage
Password protected access security for courses.
Support for creating Windows content and applications using the integrated scripting environment.

ToolBook Instructor and ToolBook Assistant content is cross compatible enabling the exchange of data between team members as well as project teams (Sum Total, Inc., 2005). The custom catalogs, tools and other authoring productivity aids created in ToolBook Instructor can be used in either ToolBook Assistant or ToolBook Instructor (Sum Total, Inc., 2005).

Designer’s Edge and Manger’s Edge by Allen Communications

Designer's Edge is an online training design and planning tool that incorporates the ability to do task analysis and report customization, as well as to increase user productivity by encouraging the creation of reusable elements through combined interfaces (Computer Link, 1999). The designer can plan, design, analyze and evaluate all the phases in the instructional development process using Designer’s Edge combined with Net Synergy for the export of Designer's Edge storyboards directly to the Web and Designer's Edge Enterprise, a Designer's Edge Dreamweaver Extension for integration with Macromedia Dreamweaver (Allen Communications, n.d.).

Designer's Edge Enterprise provides the capability to deliver online training within a centralized system that support the exchange of training data (Computer Link, 1999). Multiple training developers can be online at the same time, sharing ideas, content, templates, and data (Computer Link, 1999). Designer's Edge Enterprise supports enterprise databases (Oracle, Sybase, and Microsoft SQL Server), includes security features for protection of training assets and allows advanced search features in order to support reusable media elements and design components (Computer Link, 1999).

Net Synergy is designed o be used in combination with Designer’s Edge for designing, developing, and delivering of Web-based training across platforms (Computer Link, 1999). Designer’s Edge is used to create instruction which can be standardized across the organization and Net Synergy is then used to export the Designer’s Edge storyboards to HTML or Java templates for cross-platform delivery on the Web (Computer Link, 1999). Net Synergy can accelerate the instructional development process for experienced developers, developers currently creating online training, novice training developers, and subject matter experts (Computer Link, 1999).

Manager's Edge “helps trainers organize and deliver online learning activities and collect critical performance data all in one easy-to-use, visual environment” (Computer Link, 1999, p. Manger’s Edge). Manager’s Edge is a centralization and course management tracking tool for the delivery and tracking of online learning from CD-ROM, LAN, WAN, corporate intranet, or from an Internet server (Computer Link, 1999). Learners have access to course activities and online content while administrators can manage and collect data for both online learning and traditional training (Computer Link, 1999).

Manager's Edge is also AICC compliant therefore it supports the AICC standards for interoperability and can track performance on any course created with AICC-compliant authoring tool such as Quest, Authorware, ToolBook and IconAuthor (Professional Learning Systems, 1997-04). “Key features include the ability to set re-certification notices that trigger a course to reappear in students' learning profiles; self-registration; customization of learner and administrative interfaces; both a LAN and a browser-based student module; the ability to set pre-requisites; and the ability to print student and group performance reports” (Professional Learning Systems, 1997-04, para. 1).

Appendix B

Software Evaluation

The cognitive theory of learning describes instructional strategies that assist the learner with the encoding of information into long-term memory. Explicit memory encoding requires rehearsal for recall and recognition but a more elaborate rehearsal such as augmentation or collaborative learning for complex concepts (Clark, 2003). One of the ways to facilitate online collaboration is with internet based virtual meetings.

Synchronous exchange of ideas, information and resources such as text documents, PowerPoint presentations, and software demonstrations is accomplished over the Web with audio and visuals of the participants (Searchengineposition Inc., 2004). There are many web conferencing tools available and this evaluation will compare the attributes of Microsoft’s NetMeeting (Microsoft, Inc., 2000) with WebEx’s Web Conferencing (WebEx, n.d.).

NetMeeting

Microsoft has developed a powerful communication tools for the Web which is available for download from their site (http://www.microsoft.com/windows/NetMeeting/) at just the right price, free (Searchengineposition Inc., 2004). NetMeeting has video and audio conferencing capabilities allowing participants to collaborate via graphics, shared files, and text (Searchengineposition Inc., 2004). There is also a feature that permits controlling remote computers desktop and use its applications (Searchengineposition Inc., 2004).

NetMeeting’s audio and video tools enable the receipt of video without video hardware and automatically adjusts microphone sensitivity ensure that voices are heard (Searchengineposition Inc., 2004). The originator of the meeting can change broadcast window size for higher quality or faster performance (Searchengineposition Inc., 2004). The features of NetMeeting are outlined in the presentation that follows (Microsoft, Inc, 2000).

Presentation of NetMeeting Features (Microsoft, Inc., 2000, para.2)

Video and Audio Conferencing

NetMeeting's audio and video conferencing features permit communication anywhere over the Internet.

NetMeeting allows placement of calls from computer to phone or teleconferencing system, participants can receive audio without a computer (Searchengineposition Inc., 2004).

In order to have audio available for more than two participants at a time, a Multipoint Control Unit server is required and the high quality audio codec can be selected manually (Gunduz, 2001).

Video quality automatically adjusts according to bandwidth and supports picture-in-picture view (Gunduz, 2001). Bandwidth priority highest to lowest is audio, data, and video (Gunduz, 2001).

Chat

Chat using a simple test based interface, for synchronous ‘conversations’ with multiple participants.

Whisper mode allows individuals or small groups to share confidential messages (Searchengineposition Inc., 2004).

All chat messages can be saved as a text file for future reference (Searchengineposition Inc., 2004).

Internet Directory

The Microsoft Internet Directory is a Web site provided and maintained by Microsoft to locate people to call on the Internet.

File Transfer

File transfer allows sending one or more files to the background during a NetMeeting conference.

However these documents are not available for sharing (Gunduz, 2001).

Program Sharing

NetMeeting's Program Sharing feature has the flexibility for sharing multiple programs simultaneously during a conference and retain greater control over their use.

Remote Desktop Sharing

Remote Desktop Sharing lets you operate a computer from a remote location.

Security

NetMeeting uses three types of security measures for privacy protection.

Advanced Calling

This feature gives the flexibility to send a mail message to a NetMeeting user or initiate a NetMeeting call directly from a mail address book.

Whiteboard

The whiteboard lets you collaborate in real time via graphic information.

There is a limited selection of graphic tools: drag and drop graphics permitted within the whiteboard space, cut and paste from any Windows based application or prepare a number of whiteboard pages in advance (Searchengineposition Inc., 2004).

Each participant can edit or mark a graphic and different colored markers can be assigned to each user (Searchengineposition Inc., 2004).

Customized

Deployment

NetMeeting can be configured to preserve bandwidth with the implementation or restriction of features (Gunduz, 2001).

Cognitive Process		Instructional Strategies			Ck*	Application to Instructional Media Tools
Managing Cognitive Load		Chunking and sequencing of content				Content Control: only essential content is included, properly sequenced and in manageable chucks, presented in multiple formats, with worked examples. Provide easy access to memory supports
		Worked examples and memory support
		Content in both auditory and visual format
		Avoid non-essential information
Managing Attention		Optimizing Attention capacity				Provide variety in the instructional presentation. Minimize intense learning periods and allow for breaks. Make the instruction interactive, require learner responses, utilize bold italic, underlined, enlarged and color text.
				manage fatigue
				promote accountability and engagement
				monitor physical environment
		Support Selective Attention
				Ask questions		Integrate visuals and text on pages and screens, control the instructional activities, and do not include any distractions.
				Start with learning objectives
				Highlight and draw attention to important information
		Minimize divided attention
				Integrate visuals and text
				Offer only primary instructional activities
Activation of Prior Knowledge		Introductory Problem Discussions				Present pre-lesson problem for group discussion, avoid seductive details that evoke emotional responses
		Advance Organizers
Implicit and Explicit Mental Models		Graphics				Content control, graphics capabilities, interactivity, and collaborative tools
		Questions
		Analogies
		Practice exercises
		Collaborative assignments
Knowledge Transfer						Ability to re-create working environments and produce realistic simulations. Integration of text and visuals, and support or scaffolding such as hints.
	Near Transfer			Simulate work environment
				External support, drill and practice
	Far Transfer			Varied context examples
				Simulations
Meta cognitive Skill			Focused learning objectives			Content control, interactivity, immediate feedback to assignments, ability to do online evaluations.
			Frequent assessment and feedback
			Evaluate learner’s ability
Motivation			Clear, concrete, relevant learning objectives			Content control, learner controlled learning environment, and ability to utilize feedback as reinforcement of goal achievement.
			Achievable and appropriate goals
			Encourage internal attributes and provide learner control